Era / Period before Satavahanas

• History reconstructs the past through written/literary evidence, while Archaeology reconstructs the past through material remains.
• Literary evidence helps reconstruct political conditions, rulers, society and administration through works produced in different periods.
• Major archaeological sources include inscriptions, coins, monuments, paintings and sculptures.
• An inscription is writing or pictorial representation engraved on a durable surface such as stone.
• Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions; Numismatics is the study of coins.
• Inscriptions and coins provide evidence for rulers, political authority, victories, administration and economic activity.

Kotilingala: Early Archaeological Evidence

• Kotilingala, in Velgatur Mandal of present-day Jagtial district, is a major early historic archaeological centre associated with the Telangana region.
• Excavations at Kotilingala have yielded pre-Satavahana, Satavahana and Ikshvaku-period coins, along with pottery, terracotta objects and other archaeological remains.
• The source associates the earliest Telangana-related coins with Kotilingala and lists names such as Gobada, Siri Kamvaya, Siri Vayu, Siri Narana and Sama Gopa.
• Brahmi was the script associated with the inscriptional evidence cited for Kotilingala.

• The past is broadly classified into Prehistoric, Protohistoric and Historic periods on the basis of the availability and decipherability of written records.

• The Indus Valley Civilisation is treated as an example of a protohistoric civilisation because its script remains undeciphered.

• Systematic study of Telangana's prehistoric remains developed during the 19th century, with Sir Robert Bruce Foote associated with early investigations.
• Bruce Foote's work in the Valigonda area of present-day Yadadri district included investigations of megalithic remains.
• The Hyderabad State Archaeological Department, established in 1914, played an important role in identifying and scientifically studying prehistoric sites.
• In 1953, the department published Antiquarian Remains in Hyderabad State, which identified 118 places as protected sites.
• Salvage Archaeology or Rescue Archaeology refers to archaeological investigation undertaken at sites threatened by imminent destruction.
• V. V. Krishna Murthy identified several prehistoric sites, particularly locations containing prehistoric paintings and rock art.
• K. Thimma Reddy brought greater attention to prehistoric sites situated on the left bank of the Krishna River.
• Raja Ram Singh identified numerous prehistoric sites in northern Telangana, particularly along the Godavari valley between Basar and Bhadrachalam.
• Raja Ram Singh's investigations provided evidence suggesting that Telangana preserves remains belonging to very early stages of human development.
• Dyanavalli Satyanarayana identified ten prehistoric sites in more recent investigations.
• B. Subramaniyam's Research on the Land of Telugu is cited as an important work for studying the prehistoric period of Telangana.

• The prehistoric sequence in Telangana is presented according to the principal tools and technological practices used by human communities.

Paleolithic Age

• The Paleolithic Age, or Old Stone Age, is associated with large and relatively simple stone implements.
• Telangana's Paleolithic tools show similarities with the Acheulean tradition known from Africa.
• Important tool types included scrapers, choppers and stone hammers.

Mesolithic Age

• The Mesolithic Age is also known as the Microlithic Age because of the widespread use of small stone implements called microliths.
• Rock painting became an important cultural expression during this phase.
• The earliest generation of Mesolithic paintings cited for Telangana was found at Sanganonipalli in present-day Mahabubnagar district.
• Deer figures are particularly noted among the paintings at Sanganonipalli.

Neolithic Age

• The Neolithic Age marked a major transition towards settled life and cultivation.
• Human communities increasingly practised agriculture and permanent or semi-permanent settlement.
• Bone tools and weapons were used, while copper and bronze also began to be utilised.
• Crops included jowar, ragi, horse gram and black gram.
• Ash deposits at Utnoor provide evidence associated with Neolithic activity.
• The ash is linked to the burning of animal dung and is used as evidence for cattle rearing.
• Burial practices included placing the head of the deceased towards the north.
• Evidence from Nagarjunakonda includes the burial of two infants in a pot.

Megalithic Age

• The Megalithic Age is placed broadly between 1500 BCE and 300 CE in the chapter.
• Megalithic communities used large stones to mark or surround burial places, giving the period its name.
• Local traditions referred to some megalithic remains as Pandavula Gullu and Veerlapadulu.
• Burials could contain food grains, agricultural implements and ornaments, providing evidence about economic activity and social practices.
• The widespread use of iron tools gives the Megalithic phase its additional association with the Iron Age.
• Megalithic burial evidence is therefore important for reconstructing the transition towards more developed agricultural, technological and social systems in Telangana.

• Telangana's megalithic burials are classified according to their construction and arrangement.

• Pit burials consisted of a burial box made of mud or stone, placed inside a pit and covered; stones could be arranged around the burial in a circular pattern.
• Cyst burials used stone chambers that were not completely covered below ground level.
• A dolmen consisted of two or more upright stones supporting a large horizontal capstone.
• Rock-cut burials were created by cutting burial chambers directly into rock formations.
• Megalithic graves yielded food grains, iron tools, red-and-black pottery, gold ornaments and beads.
• At Eleshwaram in Nalgonda district, an elephant-shaped burial box was reported along with four other burial boxes.
• At an Eleshwaram burial site, the skeleton of a man was found above the skeleton of a woman, providing an unusual burial association.
• Meadows Taylor recorded thousands of graveyards at Narkatpally in Nalgonda during excavations.
• Red-and-black pottery was found in the megalithic burials at Utnoor.
• At Moula Ali in Hyderabad, clay bangles and gold beads were found in graveyard remains spread over a large area.
• A horse skeleton was found at the megalithic burial site of Pochampadu.
• Bone beads were found at Hasmatpet on the outskirts of Hyderabad.
• A megalithic burial ground excavated on the premises of University of Hyderabad yielded food grains dated to about 4,250 years.

• The Historic Period begins when written records become available in a form that can be deciphered.

• Telangana's historic period is placed from approximately the 6th century BCE.

• The 6th century BCE was marked by major religious and intellectual developments, including the rise of Buddhism and Jainism.

• Buddhist scriptures are collectively known as the Tripitakas:

  • Sutta Pitaka — discourses.
  • Vinaya Pitaka — monastic discipline.
  • Abhidhamma Pitaka — philosophical and analytical teachings.

• The 16 Mahajanapadas emerged as major political entities during the 6th century BCE.
• The Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya is an important literary source mentioning the 16 Mahajanapadas.
• Among the 16 Mahajanapadas, Asmaka is the one associated with the Telangana region.
• The other Mahajanapadas were primarily located in northern India.

• Asmaka occupied an important position in the Deccan and is associated with parts of present-day Nizamabad, Karimnagar and Adilabad in the chapter.
• Its capital is identified as Pottana or Podhan, corresponding to present-day Bodhan.
• The Buddhist monk Bhavari is associated with the spread of Buddhism into the Andhra–Telangana region.
• Mahapadma Nanda of the Nanda dynasty conquered Asmaka and extended northern political influence into the Deccan.
• The Nanda conquest represents an important stage in the increasing political interaction between northern India and the Deccan.

• Buddhist Jataka traditions, dated broadly to 600–400 BCE, refer to the region between the Godavari and Krishna rivers using names such as Andha Padam and Andhaka Rattam.
• The Aitareya Brahmana of the Rigveda is cited for an early reference to the Andhra people.
• The Suttanipata refers to Asmaka and Mulaka in relation to the Godavari region.
• The two kingdoms are described as occupying areas on either side of the Godavari River.
• Mulaka had its capital at Pratishthanapura, identified with present-day Paithan.

• Mahapadma Nanda extended Nanda power into the Deccan through the conquest of Asmaka.
• After the Nandas, the Mauryan Empire extended its political influence into the Andhra–Telangana region.
• The region consequently became an important contact zone between northern and southern India.
• The rise of the Satavahanas marks the transition from this early historic background to a major indigenous Deccan political power.
• Simuka (Sri Mukha) is traditionally identified as the founder of the Satavahana dynasty.
• The early Satavahana phase is closely associated with Kotilingala, which provides important archaeological evidence for the transition into the Satavahana period.

• The term Telangana has been connected with the older expression Trilinga Desham in a traditional explanation of the region's name.
• Archaeologist Parabrahma Sastry associated the Telugu-speaking region with the term Trilinga Desham.
• The Godavari is identified in ancient references with the name Thelivaha.
• The people living around the Thelivaha region are associated in this explanation with Trilingulu, from which the sequence Trilinga Desham → Telangana is proposed.
• Terms such as Trilinga, Tilinga and Telinga occur in inscriptions and historical usage across different periods.
• The source associates the popularisation of the term Telangana with poets of the post-Kakatiya period.
• P. Sri Rama Sharma places the emergence of the term's wider usage between the periods associated with Amir Khusrau and Abul Fazl.

• The Thellapur inscription of 1417 mentions the expression Telangana Puram.
• The Velicharla inscription of Prataparudra Gajapati, dated 1510, contains the term Telangana.
• The Tirumala and Chinakanchi inscriptions associated with Sri Krishnadevaraya also contain the term.

• Prehistoric does not mean absence of material remains; it means absence of decipherable written records.
• Protohistoric societies may possess writing, but the writing is not decipherable; the Indus Valley Civilisation is the standard example cited.
• Epigraphy refers to the study of inscriptions, whereas Numismatics refers to the study of coins.
• Mesolithic is associated with microliths and early rock art; Neolithic is associated with agriculture, settlement and animal domestication.
• Megalithic is associated with large burial monuments and is also linked with the early Iron Age in Telangana.
• Asmaka was the Telangana-associated Mahajanapada among the 16 Mahajanapadas.
• Bodhan is associated with the capital Pottana/Podhan of Asmaka.
• Mulaka should not be confused with Asmaka; its capital is identified as Pratishthanapura/Paithan.
• Sanganonipalli is associated with Mesolithic rock paintings, particularly deer figures.
• Utnoor is associated with Neolithic ash deposits and later megalithic red-and-black pottery evidence.
• Eleshwaram is notable for unusual megalithic burial evidence, including an elephant-shaped burial box.
• Narkatpally is associated with extensive megalithic graveyards investigated by Meadows Taylor.
• Pochampadu is associated with the discovery of a horse skeleton in a megalithic graveyard.
• Hasmatpet is associated with bone beads.
• Kotilingala is important for early coin and archaeological evidence and for the transition to the Satavahana phase.
• The Nanda conquest of Asmaka should be distinguished from the later emergence of the Satavahanas.
• Sri Mukha/Simuka is associated with the foundation of the Satavahana dynasty; he should not be confused with later major Satavahana rulers.
• The Aitareya Brahmana and Suttanipata are different literary sources associated with early references to Andhra and the Godavari-region polities respectively.
• Trilinga, Tilinga, Telinga and Telangana represent related historical forms of regional nomenclature, but their usage belongs to different historical contexts.