ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS

Background

• India's commercial importance attracted European merchants because Indian textiles, spices and other Asian commodities commanded strong demand in overseas markets.
• The existing overland and Mediterranean trade routes were expensive and vulnerable to political disruption, encouraging European powers to search for a direct maritime route to India.
• The Renaissance encouraged geographical exploration, scientific curiosity and advances in navigation.
• The expansion of the Ottoman Empire and the fall of Constantinople intensified the European search for alternative routes to the East.
• European powers increasingly linked trade, maritime power, territorial expansion and missionary activity.
• Portugal emerged as the early leader in maritime exploration and attempted to reach India by sailing around Africa.

Maritime Exploration

• Prince Henry the Navigator acted as a major patron and sponsor of Portuguese voyages.
• 1487: Bartholomew Diaz reached the Indian Ocean from the Atlantic; the southern tip of Africa was later associated with the name Cape of Good Hope.
• 1498: Vasco da Gama sailed from the Cape of Good Hope with the Gujarati pilot Abdul Majid and reached Calicut.
• Vasco da Gama's voyage established a direct maritime connection between Europe and India and marked the beginning of sustained European maritime intervention in India.

• The European presence initially developed around trade and factories.
• Competition gradually transformed commercial rivalry into a struggle for political and military influence.
• By the mid-18th century, the English and French became the principal European rivals in India.
• The defeat of the French at Wandiwash in 1760 left the English East India Company without a serious European rival in India.

Arrival and Early Expansion

• 1498: Vasco da Gama reached Calicut.
• 1500: Pedro Alvarez Cabral established the first Portuguese factory at Calicut.
• Cabral's commercial activity brought the Portuguese into conflict with local Arab merchants.
• 1503: The Portuguese established a factory at Cochin.
• 1505: A second factory was established at Cannanore.
• Portuguese expansion was closely connected with naval power, fortified settlements and control over maritime trade.

Important Portuguese Personalities

Francisco de Almeida

• Francisco de Almeida (1505–09) became the first Portuguese viceroy in India.
• He adopted the Blue Water Policy, emphasising Portuguese naval supremacy in the Indian Ocean rather than extensive territorial control.
• He constructed or strengthened forts including Fort Anjediva and Fort St. Angelo.
• Portuguese naval operations against the combined Muslim naval forces of the Gujarat Sultanate and Mamluk Egypt strengthened Portuguese maritime dominance.

Alfonso de Albuquerque

• Alfonso de Albuquerque (1509–15) is associated with the consolidation of the Portuguese Empire in India.
• He regarded permanent settlement and territorial control as essential to Portuguese power.
• 1510: He annexed Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur.
• He encouraged Portuguese settlers to marry Indian women as part of the policy of establishing a permanent Portuguese presence.
• He actively promoted Christianity.
• His policies combined military force, maritime control, territorial acquisition and settlement.
• The Portuguese headquarters was initially at Cochin; it was later shifted to Goa under Nino da Cunha.

Portuguese Territorial and Commercial Network

• Portuguese power was not confined to Goa.

• On the western coast, Portuguese control extended through a narrow coastal tract with important ports around Mumbai, Daman and Diu.

• In the south, Portuguese influence extended through fortified ports and trading posts such as:

  • Mangalore
  • Cannanore
  • Cochin
  • Calicut

• Portuguese settlements also appeared on the eastern coast at:

  • San Thome
  • Nagapattinam

• By the end of the 16th century, Hooghly had developed as an important Portuguese settlement in Bengal.

• Portuguese influence also extended into the political affairs of Indian states through diplomacy, treaties and military involvement.

Portuguese Administration

• The viceroy stood at the head of the Portuguese administration and normally served for three years.
• The viceroy was assisted by a secretary and, later, a council.
• The Vedor da Fazenda was responsible for revenues, cargoes and the dispatch of fleets.
• Fortresses across the Portuguese Asian empire were placed under captains assisted by factors.
• Distance from the central authorities gave local officials considerable autonomy, which could also encourage misuse of power.

Cartaz System

• Portuguese maritime control was reinforced through the cartaz system.
• Ships operating in waters dominated by the Portuguese were expected to carry Portuguese passes.
• The system helped the Portuguese regulate maritime commerce and strengthen their control over sea routes.
• Excessive enforcement contributed to resentment among local traders and communities.

Religious Policy

• Portuguese expansion was accompanied by strong missionary activity.
• Portuguese policy was particularly hostile towards Muslims.
• The Portuguese were initially more tolerant towards Hindus, but this changed with the introduction of the Inquisition in Goa.
• The Jesuits nevertheless established contacts with the Mughal court.
• 1579: Akbar requested the authorities at Goa to send learned Christian priests.
• 1580: Rodolfo Aquaviva and Antonio Monserrate reached Fatehpur Sikri.
• Their mission reflected the interaction between Portuguese missionary activity and Akbar's interest in theological discussions.

Portuguese Decline

• Weak successors after Albuquerque reduced administrative efficiency.
• Portuguese society was strongly influenced by aristocratic interests, limiting the influence of merchants over state policy.
• Portuguese officials in India received inadequate support from the home government.
• Religious intolerance and forced conversions created hostility among local populations.
• The cartaz system and Portuguese maritime coercion generated resentment.
• The union of Portugal with Spain in 1580 involved Portugal in conflicts with England and Holland, weakening Portuguese interests in India.
• Portuguese attention was also diverted by their possessions and opportunities in Brazil.
• The arrival of the Dutch, English and French created increasingly powerful commercial and naval competitors.
• Portuguese power consequently declined sharply in India during the 17th century.
• Yet the Portuguese retained Goa, Daman and Diu until 1961, making them both the first Europeans to arrive in India and the last European power to leave Indian territory.

Significance of Portuguese Rule

• Portuguese missionaries promoted Christianity, particularly along the Malabar and Konkan coasts.

• St. Francis Xavier, Father Rudolf and Father Monserrate were associated with missionary activity.

• Portuguese missionaries established educational institutions along the western coast and promoted learning in local languages.

• Portuguese scholars also contributed to the study of Indian history and culture.

• The Portuguese introduced the printing press into India.

• Several crops, fruits and vegetables became associated with Portuguese introduction and diffusion, including:

  • Potato
  • Sweet potato
  • Tobacco
  • Groundnut
  • Cashew

• Portuguese maritime activity demonstrated the importance of naval power in controlling sea-based commerce.

Arrival and Dutch East India Company

• The Dutch entered India primarily for commercial purposes.

• Dutch maritime strength was supported by the fluitship (fluyt), designed for efficient commercial shipping.

• Cornelius de Houtman was the first Dutch traveller associated with the opening of Dutch contact with the region.

• 1602: The Dutch East India Company was formed under a charter from the Dutch Parliament.

• The Company possessed powers to:

  • Wage war.
  • Make treaties.
  • Acquire territories.
  • Build fortresses.

• The Dutch Company's primary strategic interest lay in Indonesia and the Spice Islands, rather than India.

• India nevertheless remained important because Indian textiles were demanded in markets connected with South-West Asian trade.

Dutch Factories and Settlements

• Other Dutch centres included Kasimbazar, Baranagore, Patna, Balasore, Peepli, Agra, Ahmedabad, Surat, Broach, Cambay and Chinsura.
• The Dutch established their headquarters at Pulicat after reaching an agreement with the ruler of Chandragiri.
• Gold coins known as Pagodas were minted at Pulicat.
• The Dutch commercial model was associated with a cartel/cooperative system.
• Dutch activity contributed significantly to the development of Indian cotton textiles as an export commodity.

Anglo-Dutch Rivalry

• Dutch and English competition was particularly intense in the Indonesian and Southeast Asian sphere.
• 1623 — Amboyna Massacre: Dutch authorities killed English and Japanese personnel at Amboyna, intensifying Anglo-Dutch hostility.
• The Dutch subsequently concentrated increasingly on their stronger commercial interests in the Malay Archipelago.

Decline of the Dutch in India

• The Dutch gradually shifted attention away from India towards the Malay Archipelago.
• Anglo-Dutch rivalry weakened Dutch influence in India.
• 1759 — Battle of Bedara/Bidara: The English defeated the Dutch in Bengal.
• The defeat effectively ended Dutch political power in India.

Foundation of the English East India Company

• 31 December 1600: Queen Elizabeth I issued the charter establishing the English East India Company.

• The charter granted the Company a monopoly over English trade with the East Indies for 15 years.

• English maritime ambitions were strengthened by:

  • Drake's voyage around the world.
  • The English victory over the Spanish Armada.

• The Company gradually transformed from a trading body into a major political and territorial power.

Early English Factories

• 1612: Captain Thomas Best defeated the Portuguese.

• 1613: The English established their first factory at Surat.

• Sir Thomas Roe subsequently secured permission from Jahangir for English factories at:

  • Agra
  • Ahmedabad
  • Broach

• The English therefore gradually developed a network of inland as well as coastal commercial centres.

Bombay

• Bombay came into English possession as part of the dowry associated with the marriage of Charles II and the Portuguese royal family.
• Charles II subsequently leased Bombay to the English Company for an annual rent of £10.
• Bombay became one of the three major English centres in India.

Madras

• 1639: The English obtained Madras from the Chandragiri chief.
• Fort St. George developed at Madras.
• Madras replaced Masulipatnam as the English headquarters on the eastern coast.

Calcutta

• Calcutta developed around three villages:

  • Sutanuti
  • Gobindapur
  • Kalikata

• The English acquired these settlements from the Mughal authorities in Bengal.

• 1700: The fortified settlement became Fort William.

• Calcutta subsequently became the major English centre in Bengal.

Farrukhsiyar's Farmans

• 1717: Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar issued farmans granting important privileges to the English East India Company.
• These privileges extended to the Company's operations in Bengal, Gujarat and Hyderabad.
• The farmans became extremely important for the expansion of English commercial privileges.

Rival English Companies

• 1635: A rival English company emerged under Sir William Courteen.
• The rival organisation was later known as the Assada Company.
• In 1657, the two companies merged.
• 1698: Another rival company appeared.
• Rivalry ended in 1702, while final amalgamation occurred in 1708.
• The united organisation was known as the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies.
• The Company continued its Indian operations until 1858.

Foundation

• 1664: Jean-Baptiste Colbert, minister of Louis XIV, founded the Compagnie des Indes Orientales.
• French commercial activity in India developed around a network of coastal settlements.
• Pondicherry eventually became the headquarters of French power in India.
• 1673: Pondicherry was granted to François Martin, associated with the Masulipatnam factory, by Sher Khan Lodi, governor of Valikondapuram.

French Centres

• Important French centres included:

  • Pondicherry
  • Chandernagore
  • Mahe
  • Karaikal

• Pondicherry became the principal base for French political and commercial ambitions in southern India.

French Political Ambition

• French commercial activity increasingly became intertwined with political intervention in the Carnatic and Hyderabad.
• Joseph François Dupleix emerged as the principal French statesman associated with the attempt to build French political influence in India.
• The Anglo-French struggle ultimately produced the Carnatic Wars.

Background

• Anglo-French rivalry in India was closely connected with wider Anglo-French wars in Europe.
• Commercial interests encouraged both companies to protect and expand their positions.
• Political instability and succession disputes in southern India provided opportunities for European intervention.
• The rivalry developed into three Carnatic Wars.

First Carnatic War — 1740–48

• The First Carnatic War was essentially an extension of the Anglo-French conflict in Europe.
• French forces captured Madras.
• The conflict ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748.
• The European settlement restored the balance without producing a decisive French political victory in India.

Second Carnatic War — 1749–54

• The Second Carnatic War was closely connected with succession struggles in the Carnatic and Hyderabad.
• Dupleix attempted to exploit Indian succession disputes to expand French influence.
• The English countered French political manoeuvring and strengthened their own position.
• Robert Clive's capture of Arcot became an important turning point in the conflict.
• The war ended without a complete military destruction of either side.
• Nevertheless, French influence in South India was substantially weakened relative to the English.
• The conflict ended with the Treaty of Pondicherry in 1754.

Third Carnatic War — 1758–63

• The Third Carnatic War was another extension of the Anglo-French struggle in Europe.
• It became the decisive phase of the contest for European supremacy in India.
• The decisive confrontation occurred at Wandiwash.

Battle of Wandiwash

• 22 January 1760: The English defeated the French at Wandiwash (Vandavasi) in Tamil Nadu.
• General Eyre Coote commanded the English forces.
• The French army was commanded by Count Thomas Arthur de Lally.
• Bussy was taken prisoner.
• The French subsequently lost important positions including Jinji and Mahe.
• Pondicherry surrendered on 16 January 1761 after prolonged resistance.
• The French political position in India was reduced to its lowest point.

Treaty of Paris — 1763

• The Treaty of Paris (1763) restored French factories in India.
• However, the French were restricted to commercial activity.
• Fortification of French settlements was prohibited.
• French political influence effectively disappeared.
• The French subsequently remained confined to their limited enclaves and commercial interests.

Three Carnatic Wars at a Glance

Significance of Wandiwash

• Wandiwash decisively weakened French political ambitions in India.
• It left the English East India Company without a major European rival.
• The English thereafter possessed a substantially freer field for expansion.
• The battle is therefore an important turning point in the transition from European rivalry to English predominance.
• Indian soldiers served as sepoys in both armies, highlighting the role of Indian manpower in European conflicts.

• The Danish East India Company was established in 1616.

• Danish settlements in India included:

  • Tranquebar on the Coromandel Coast.
  • Serampore in Bengal.

• Danish activity remained primarily commercial.

• The Danes did not develop the territorial or military strength required to compete successfully with the larger European powers.

• Their Indian possessions were eventually transferred to the English.

English Success over the French

• The English East India Company functioned as a private enterprise, allowing comparatively rapid decision-making.

• The French Company was more closely controlled by the French state, making decision-making slower and more dependent on governmental policy.

• The English navy was superior to the French navy.

• English naval superiority helped disrupt the sea link between French possessions in India and France.

• The English possessed three strategically important centres:

  • Calcutta
  • Bombay
  • Madras

• The French had Pondicherry as their principal stronghold.

• The French subordinated commercial interests to territorial ambition, creating financial difficulties.

• The English did not abandon commercial interests even while pursuing territorial expansion.

• English commercial strength generated the funds necessary to sustain prolonged warfare.

• English commanders such as Eyre Coote, Stringer Lawrence and Robert Clive gave the English a broader pool of capable military leadership.

• On the French side, Dupleix remained the principal outstanding figure for much of the struggle.

• English access to supplies from Bengal and their northern settlements strengthened their military position, while French forces faced greater difficulty in obtaining supplies.

European Powers — Comparative Revision

• European expansion in India was initially organised through chartered trading companies.

• These companies were not ordinary merchant associations.

• Their charters could provide powers to:

  • Trade monopolistically.
  • Establish factories.
  • Build fortifications.
  • Maintain armed forces.
  • Enter treaties.
  • Wage war.
  • Acquire territory.

• This combination of commercial and quasi-sovereign powers enabled trading companies to move gradually from commerce to political intervention.

• The English and Dutch companies possessed particularly strong organisational and financial structures.

• The French Company's greater dependence on the French government created difficulties in independent decision-making.

• Control of maritime routes was fundamental to European power in India.

• Naval strength enabled Europeans to:

  • Protect commercial shipping.
  • Control strategic ports.
  • Transport troops and supplies.
  • Disrupt rival European communications.
  • Pressure Indian coastal trade.

• Portuguese success initially rested heavily on naval supremacy.

• Later, English naval superiority became decisive against the French.

• The English navy could interrupt the French maritime connection with France, weakening French forces in India.

• European commercial expansion was supported by wider economic and technological developments.
• English commercial interests remained closely connected with territorial ambitions rather than being completely subordinated to them.
• The English retained a stronger commercial base while fighting their European rivals.
• This provided sustained access to funds for military operations.
• Commercial strength therefore acted as a foundation for military and political expansion.

• European companies maintained organised military forces and trained Indian soldiers as sepoys.
• Discipline, firearms, artillery and organised command structures enhanced European battlefield effectiveness.
• English commanders repeatedly demonstrated the ability to exploit tactical opportunities.
• The military dimension of European commercial expansion increasingly became decisive in the 18th century.

• The English benefited from greater political stability at home.
• Stable political institutions supported continuity in commercial and military policy.
• French involvement in European wars repeatedly diverted resources away from the Indian theatre.
• The English were consequently able to sustain their Indian operations more effectively.

• Portuguese expansion was strongly associated with missionary activity and religious confrontation.
• Religious intolerance contributed to Portuguese hostility among sections of the local population.
• The English were comparatively less dependent on religious conversion as the primary basis of their Indian expansion.
• This allowed commercial and political objectives to receive greater emphasis.

• English commercial and state power was supported by access to wider financial resources.
• The ability to mobilise funds through developed financial institutions and debt mechanisms strengthened the Company's capacity to sustain prolonged military campaigns.
• Financial depth therefore reinforced the relationship:

Commercial strength → Financial resources → Military capacity → Political expansion

• 1498 vs 1487: Diaz reached the Indian Ocean; Vasco da Gama reached Calicut.
• 1600 vs 1602: English East India Company was chartered in 1600; Dutch East India Company was formed in 1602.
• Almeida vs Albuquerque: Almeida is associated with the Blue Water Policy; Albuquerque with the capture of Goa and territorial consolidation.
• Goa vs Pondicherry: Goa was the principal Portuguese centre; Pondicherry was the principal French centre.
• Pulicat vs Pondicherry: Pulicat was a major Dutch centre; Pondicherry was French.
• Surat vs Masulipatnam: Surat became the first English factory in 1613; Masulipatnam was an early Dutch factory.
• Amboyna vs Bedara: Amboyna was the 1623 Dutch-English conflict in Indonesia; Bedara/Bidara was the 1759 English victory over the Dutch in Bengal.
• First Carnatic War: ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.
• Second Carnatic War: ended with the Treaty of Pondicherry.
• Third Carnatic War: associated with Wandiwash and the Treaty of Paris.
• Wandiwash: English victory over the French, not the Dutch.
• Farrukhsiyar: associated with 1717 farmans, not the establishment of the English Company.
• French political decline: Wandiwash was decisive, but the Treaty of Paris restored French factories for commercial use.
• Portuguese exit: Portuguese political decline occurred much earlier, but Goa, Daman and Diu remained under Portuguese control until 1961.

One-Line Facts

• 1487: Diaz → Indian Ocean.
• 1498: Vasco da Gama → Calicut.
• 1500: Cabral → first Portuguese factory at Calicut.
• 1505: Almeida → first Portuguese viceroy.
• Blue Water Policy: Almeida.
• 1510: Albuquerque → Goa.
• Portuguese headquarters: Cochin → Goa.
• Portuguese final territorial strongholds: Goa, Daman and Diu → 1961.
• 1600: English East India Company.
• 1602: Dutch East India Company.
• 1613: English factory at Surat.
• 1639: English obtain Madras.
• 1700: Fort William at Calcutta.
• 1717: Farrukhsiyar's farmans.
• 1664: French East India Company.
• Pondicherry: principal French centre.
• 1740–48: First Carnatic War.
• 1749–54: Second Carnatic War.
• 1759: Dutch defeated at Bedara/Bidara.
• 1758–63: Third Carnatic War.
• 1760: Wandiwash — decisive English victory.
• 1763: Treaty of Paris — French political ambitions in India effectively ended.
• English supremacy: strengthened by commercial resources, naval power, military organisation, stable support and stronger strategic positions.

Core Causal Chain

• European maritime exploration

  • Search for direct Asian trade routes
  • Portuguese maritime breakthrough
  • Arrival at Calicut
  • Establishment of factories and fortified settlements
  • Dutch, English, French and Danish competition
  • Commercial rivalry
  • Political and military intervention
  • Anglo-French struggle
  • Wandiwash, 1760
  • English emerges as the dominant European power in India

Final Memory Grid